confirmation bias, people’s tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs. This biased approach to decision making is largely unintentional, and it results in a person ignoring information that is inconsistent with their beliefs. These beliefs can include a person’s expectations in a given situation and their predictions about a particular outcome. People are especially likely to process information to support their own beliefs when an issue is highly important or self-relevant.

 

Background

Confirmation bias is one example of how humans sometimes process information in an illogical, biased manner. The manner in which a person knows and understands the world is often affected by factors that are simply unknown to that person. Philosophers note that people have difficulty processing information in a rational, unbiased manner once they have developed an opinion about an issue. Humans are better able to rationally process information, giving equal weight to multiple viewpoints, if they are emotionally distant from the issue (although a low level of confirmation bias can still occur when an individual has no vested interests).

 

One explanation for why people are susceptible to confirmation bias is that it is an efficient way to process information. Humans are incessantly bombarded with information and cannot possibly take the time to carefully process each piece of information to form an unbiased conclusion. Human decision making and information processing is often biased because people are limited to interpreting information from their own viewpoint. People need to process information quickly to protect themselves from harm. It is adaptive for humans to rely on instinctive, automatic behaviours that keep them out of harm’s way.

Another reason why people show confirmation bias is to protect their self-esteem. People like to feel good about themselves, and discovering that a belief that they highly value is incorrect makes them feel bad about themselves. Therefore, people will seek information that supports their existing beliefs. Another closely related motive is wanting to be correct. People want to feel that they are intelligent, but information that suggests that they are wrong or that they made a poor decision suggests they are lacking intelligence—and thus confirmation bias will encourage them to disregard this information.

 

Evidence

Research has shown that confirmation bias is strong and widespread and that it occurs in several contexts. In the context of decision making, once an individual makes a decision, they will look for information that supports it. Information that conflicts with a person’s decision may cause discomfort, and the person will therefore ignore it or give it little consideration. People give special treatment to information that supports their personal beliefs. In studies examining my-side bias, people were able to generate and remember more reasons supporting their side of a controversial issue than the opposing side. Only when a researcher directly asked people to generate arguments against their own beliefs were they able to do so. It is not that people are incapable of generating arguments that are counter to their beliefs, but, rather, people are not motivated to do so.

Confirmation bias also surfaces in people’s tendency to look for positive instances. When seeking information to support their hypotheses or expectations, people tend to look for positive evidence that confirms that a hypothesis is true rather than information that would prove the view is false (if it is false).

Confirmation bias also operates in impression formation. If people are told what to expect from a person they are about to meet, such as that the person is warm, friendly, and outgoing, people will look for information that supports their expectations. When interacting with people whom perceivers think have certain personalities, the perceivers will ask questions of those people that are biased toward supporting the perceivers’ beliefs. For example, if Maria expects her roommate to be friendly and outgoing, Maria may ask her if she likes to go to parties rather than asking if she often studies in the library.

 

Importance

Confirmation bias is important because it may lead people to hold strongly to false beliefs or to give more weight to information that supports their beliefs than is warranted by the evidence. People may be overconfident in their beliefs because they have accumulated evidence to support them, when in reality they have overlooked or ignored a great deal of evidence refuting their beliefs—evidence which, if they had considered it, should lead them to question their beliefs. These factors may lead to risky decision making and lead people to overlook warning signs and other important information. In this manner, confirmation bias is often a component of black swan events, which are high-impact events that are unexpected but, in retrospect, appear to be inevitable.

 

Implications

Confirmation bias has important implications in the real world, including in medicine, law, and interpersonal relationships. Research has shown that medical doctors are just as likely to have confirmation biases as everyone else. Doctors often have a preliminary hunch regarding the diagnosis of a medical condition early in the treatment process. This hunch can interfere with the doctor’s ability to assess information that may indicate an alternative diagnosis is more likely. Another related outcome is how patients react to diagnoses. Patients are more likely to agree with a diagnosis that supports their preferred outcome than a diagnosis that goes against their preferred outcome. Both of these examples demonstrate that confirmation bias has implications for individuals’ health and well-being.

In the context of law, judges and jurors sometimes form an opinion about a defendant’s guilt or innocence before all of the evidence is known. Once a judge or juror forms an opinion, confirmation bias will interfere with their ability to process new information that emerges during a trial, which may lead to unjust verdicts.

 

In interpersonal relations, confirmation bias can be problematic because it may lead a person to form inaccurate and biased impressions of others. This may result in miscommunication and conflict in intergroup settings. In addition, when someone treats a person according to their expectations, that person may unintentionally change their behavior to conform to the other person’s expectations, thereby providing further support for the perceiver’s confirmation bias.

 

 

True or False: Contagious Hysteria, Mass Deceptions, Conspiracy Theories, and Confidence Games

 

Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact.

Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.

Marcus Aurelius

 

HCOL 40000-665

Fall 2025

Honors Colloquium

Sadler 217

Tuesdays, 4-6:40 PM

 

Dan Williams, PhD

Director of TCU Press and TCU Honors Professor of Humanities

Office[s]: TCU Press (3000 Sandage), Sadler 427

Office Hours: Thursday and Friday, 8 AM-noon, at TCU Press, and by appointment (in person or virtual)

d.e.williams@tcu.edu

817-257-5907 office

 

Emails are usually the best way to reach me, and all emails from students are usually answered the same day.  For appointments, please email before our meeting to be sure where I will be.

 

Final Exercise:

Our final exercise will take place on Tuesday, December 9, from 2 to 4:30 PM.

 

I will email you this syllabus before our first meeting and as well upload it and other courses materials to our D2L site.  I will also post grading points on D2L.

 

Student resources, policies, and information can be located at: https://cte.tcu.edu/tcu-syllabus-policies/

 

Course Description:

True or False is a discussion-based Honors colloquium that examines a variety of deceptive truth claims.  In the context of a world dominated by digital realities and “alternate facts,” this course investigates historical and contemporary occurrences when multitudes of people were misled.  After an initial discussion of current scams and swindles, such as phishing and catfishing, the course will proceed loosely chronologically to consider the Salem Witch hysteria, when nineteen people were executed and hundreds more accused of witchcraft, the mid-nineteenth century Millerite Movement, when several thousand people converged on a hilltop in Kansas to await the end of the world, the White Slave Trade hysteria of the early 1900s, when thousands of people across the US were in panic believing that young white girls were being kidnapped and sold into sexual slavery, three of the world’s greatest con men (Victor Lustig who twice sold the Eiffel Tower, Charles S. Parker who sold the Brooklyn Bridge numerous times, and Charles Ponzi, who originated the Ponzi Scheme), religious cults such as the Branch Davidians in Waco and Heaven’s Gate, and conclude with current hoaxes and conspiracy theories.  Throughout the course, the manipulation of belief will be examined.  Readings will kept short to allow students to research course topics for themselves by examining a variety of books, online sources, films, and videos.

 

Prerequisite & Concurrent enrollment:

You must be enrolled in the Honors College to take this colloquium.

 

Recommended Print Sources:

Catch Me If You Can, The True Story of a Real Fake, Frank Abagnale, Crown, 2002

The Confidence Man in American Literature, Gary Lindberg, Oxford University Press, 1982

Cults: Inside the World’s Most Notorious Groups, Max Cutler, Gallery Books, 2022

The Death of Expertise, Tom Nichols, Oxford University Press, 2024

The Death of Truth, Steven Brill, Knopf, 2024

The Delusions of Crowds, William J. Bernstein, 2024

Fighting the Traffic in Young Girls: The War on the White Slave Trade, Ernest A. Bell, 1910

The Greatest Hoax on Earth: Catching Truth, While We Can, Alan Logan, 2021

History’s Greatest Deceptions, Steven Lazaroff and Mark Rodger, 2018

The Salem Witch Hunt, Richard Godbeer, Bedford St. Martins, 2017

 

Films:  

The Music Man, 1962

**The Flimflam Man, 1967

**Paper Moon, 1973

The Sting, 1973

Trading Places, 1983

Dirty Rotten Scoundrels, 1988

The Grifters, 1990

The Usual Suspects, 1995

The Spanish Prisoner, 1998

The Talented Mr. Ripley, 1999

Heartbreakers, 2001

Catch Me If You Can, 2002

The Italian Job, 2003

Matchstick Men, 2003

Confidence, 2003

Futurama: Bender’s Big Score, 2007

Catfish, 2010

American Hustle, 2013

The Wolf of Wall Street, 2013

Now You See Me, 2013

The Inventor, 2019 (Elizabeth Holmes and Theranos)

**popular older films but highly recommended

 

Social Media (Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and TikTok)

 

Teaching Philosophy:

I value all perspectives, and I do not believe there are dumb questions or right or wrong answers.  I teach through discussion, so I do not lecture or test for short-term memorization.  I will introduce subjects, concepts, contexts, and situations, and I will do my best to engage you in critical discussions.  My aim is not to train you to think like me—but to motivate you to think for yourselves.  Learning is a process of self-discovery, and you learn best when you are active and interested.  Every course I teach is partnership, and I ask students to actively contribute to its success.  My goal is always to help students develop their intellectual expertise and their own critical perspectives.

 

True or False Learning Outcomes:

1.        A general familiarity with truth theories and current global and national issues concerning the validity of truth statements and the manipulation of belief.

2.        An understanding of confirmation bias

3.        An overview of current deep fake practices

4.        A general familiarity with the historical development of the Salem Witch Hunt

5.        A general familiarity with historical mass delusions, particularly the Millerite Movement and the White Slavery Panic

6.        A general familiarity with historical con games and confidence men

7.        A general familiarity with current online practices of fraud, imposture, and deception.

8.        A general familiarity with depictions of fraud and deception in popular media (film, television, and social media)

 

Honors Colloquia Outcomes:

1.        Students will integrate knowledge across different modes or domains,

2.        Students will develop informed, course-related perspectives grounded in their identities, values, and academic learning.

 

Course Requirements:

 

1)    Attendance and Participation.  Discussion and participation are essential requirements of this colloquium. Students are required to take an active part in the colloquium and to contribute to its success.  In every class we will discuss the assigned readings or videos and related issues, and in nearly every class there will be some sort of in-class activity (brief writing assignments, group work, assigned research and discussions).  Anyone absent will not receive credit for these activities.  Missing more than three classes during the term will result in a class drop or failure.

 

2)    Familiarity with the Texts and videos.  A knowledge of the assigned texts and videos are crucial and expected.  Please read, view, and review.  I will not assign excessive amounts of reading or research, and I will expect a familiarity with the assignments for every class.  While I will not quiz on content, I will expect that you demonstrate familiarity with our course subjects and discussions, and I will weekly assign participation points to those who demonstrated such familiarity.  There are three ways you can do this: speaking up during class discussions, writing about content and your reactions in your blog entries, or talking with me during my office hours (in person or virtual).

 

3)    Learning Journals.  Throughout the semester you are required to keep an online journal (a blog) and post a minimum of ten entries—five before Fall Break, and five before Finals.  In these entries you are asked to comment specifically on your learning experiences—particularly about what you’ve read or researched in this course, and what you learned from our class discussions, but also more generally about all your learning experiences (both inside and outside of classrooms).  In response to our assigned readings and discussions, please describe what you found interesting, useful, and/or relevant in your learning experiences. You are also welcome to comment on what you did not find to be interesting, useful, and/or relevant.  What you write is up to you, but I ask is that you honestly reflect on your learning experiences and assess the value of these experiences in terms of your own life.  Entries should be a minimum of around 250 words in length.

 

Where you keep your journal is up to you, but I strongly recommend that you use

Google’s Blogger.  It is one of the oldest blogger platforms, but it is by far the easiest.  There is no learning curve.  I will create a central course website using Blogger, and I will use it for course content and to link your individual blogs.

 

My primary interest is having you keep a record of your learning experiences.  I encourage you to reflect on the relevance of these experiences.

 

Anyone who waits until the week before midterms or finals to post 2 or more journal entries will receive half credit for those entries.  Keeping your learning journal is an exercise in self-reflection as you learn and should not be reduced to an academic “homework” assignment that can completed simply to complete the assignment.

 

4)    In-class Research Presentations.  Student research is a primary course emphasis, and the presentations will be scored according to the range and depth of student work. 

 

Throughout the semester students will take part in three presentations.  1) Topics Research, 2) Popular Media, and 3) Campus Surveys.  Students will work in teams of 3 for each of these three assignments. 

 

For the topics research, students will present their research on one of the course’s primary subject areas (truth theories and definitions, current online scamming practices, the Salem Witch Hysteria, the Millerite Movement, The White Slavery Panic, Waco, historical hoaxes, historical tricksters and swindlers).  They will locate and present relevant information concerning their subject areas, such as an overview of historical events and/or episodes, the social and cultural causes, the motivations of the people involved, and the consequences and repercussions of the events and/or episodes (plus any fun facts they discovered).  In addition to informing the class concerning what happened and who was involved, teams must try to explain relevance of their topics—why is it important to know about this subject?

 

For the popular media presentations, students will present their research on popular media depictions of con men, scam artists, trickers, scoundrels, and swindlers primarily in film (see above list of films) but also in social media (such as Tik Tok and YouTube). Teams will preview, introduce, present, and discuss the depictions con men, scam artists, trickers, and swindlers in film and social media, noting how their depictions reveal them as heroes, antiheroes, or just plain scoundrels.  Each team will preview its film or social media site in advance, choose up to 15-20 minutes of video clips, and then prepare brief introductions for each of the sequences they’ve chosen. The primary focus of their introductions and discussions should demonstrate how con men, tricksters, and swindlers have been  marketed for popular audiences and as well how these depictions compare to the historical representations.  Teams may also offer critical assessments on their media’s overall quality, representations, techniques, and relevance, and for films th teams can conclude with rotten tomatoes assessments. 

 

For the Campus surveys, students will prepare a questionnaire and interview other students, faculty, and staff concerning current fraudulent practices on campus and/or concerns about truth-telling.  The specific survey questions will be developed collaboratively in class, but the basic ideas are to discover what others on campus know about, have observed, or have experienced concerning fraudulent and/or deceptive practices (online, in person, or in the classroom).  In a world where it is difficult to discern the difference between true and untrue, the surveys should ultimately assess whether or not fraudulent, deceptive practices are common at TCU and how concerned are people around campus with truth-telling difficulties.

 

All three presentations should be interactive and should engage the class in discussions.

 

5)    Final Class Assignment: What Have I learned Videos.  For the final course assignment, (still) teams of 3 students will be required to create and present a brief video (8-10 minutes max) that offers a concluding reflection of the team’s thoughts, observations, and experiences throughout the semester.  There is no specific format or formula, but teams are asked to reflect on what they experienced as learners that was relevant.  These videos should be engaging and creative.  Ultimately, each team must create a video responding to one overall question: What are you going to take away from this course?  What are your actual outcomes compared to the course outcomes?

 

These videos will be shown on our designated final exam slot during finals week, Tuesday, December 9, from 2 to 4:30 PM.

 

6)    Never Use the Non-Word “Very.”  Throughout the semester, students are asked to exclude the non-word “very” in all class writing.  It is used so frequently that it has become meaningless.  English has a rich vocabulary, and there are far stronger words to intensify thoughts and feelings.  People who frequently use it demonstrate a lack of vocabulary.  There will not be points taken away for its use, but there will be 3 extra credit points for any student who never used the non-word in their writing.

 

Course Assignments and Final Grade:

Attendance and Participation               20%

Learning Journals                                             30%

Research/ Review Presentations       30%                                          

Final Presentations                                         20%

Eradicating the Non-Word Very           3 points extra credit

 

Grading Scale:

A               94-100

A-             90-93

B+           86-89

B               81-85

B-             78-80

C+           75-77

C              73-74

C-            70-72

D+           67-69

D              64-66

D-            60-63

 

Course Schedule:

August 19: introduction, truth concepts, confirmation bias, and alternate facts

https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201808/what-is-truth

“Six Times Seven Is Not Forty-One,” The Death of Truth (2024) 9-page handout

 

August 26: catfishing, phishing, spear phishing, and deep fakes

https://www.phishing.org/what-is-phishing

https://consumer.ftc.gov/articles/how-recognize-and-avoid-phishing-scams

https://us.norton.com/blog/online-scams/what-is-catfishing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuufkPTFt0E

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7akzhpx0EIU

https://www.spokeo.com/compass/what-you-need-to-know-about-catphishing/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=at53zE5zOH4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2H_7sP-yaZc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcpV857mMCI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VY5suVb0BSI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etSfYERBK28

 

September 2:  Salem Witch Hysteria

https://www.history.com/articles/salem-witch-trials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Sv93yRPQSs

 

September 9: Salem Witch Hysteria

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/a-brief-history-of-the-salem-witch-trials-175162489/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3h6pyWrOq4

 

September 16: The Millerite Movement

https://www.thoughtco.com/millerites-definition-1773334

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millerism

https://newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/william-miller-convinced-thousands-millerites-world-end/

 

September 23: The Millerite Movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZXzKNeosMvU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcnJMGOPbi8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90mZj5YdRyc

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/SiP_rIdUJ-E

 

September 30: The White Slave Trade

Traffic in Souls, 1913 film

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_slavery

https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/unforgivable-blackness/mann-act

https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/united-states-and-canada/us-history/white-slave-traffic-act

https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyond-trafficking-and-slavery/white-slavery-origins-of-anti-trafficking-movement/

 

October 7: The White Slave Trade

https://www.npr.org/2008/03/11/88104308/the-long-colorful-history-of-the-mann-act

https://reason.com/2008/03/13/the-white-slavery-panic/

https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyond-trafficking-and-slavery/white-slavery-origins-of-anti-trafficking-movement/

 

October 14: Cults, Waco

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Branch-Davidian

https://allthatsinteresting.com/branch-davidians

 

October 21: Cults, Waco

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhKmRtBfxjo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4GJhsnxcsrY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S3B7iWE1PrA

 

October 28: Historical Hoaxes and Frauds

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUuo4M2aLwE

https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-most-infamous-hoaxes-in-history-deception-trickery-and-the-power-of-belief

https://allthatsinteresting.com/con-artists

https://moneyinc.com/the-20-most-notorious-con-artists-of-all-time/

 

November 4: Conspiracy Theories

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jW5VGdL4brQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jW5VGdL4brQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCQx2hlEPEc

 

November 11: Tricksters, and Swindlers (Lustig, Parker,)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fe2iQ1f-IYE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-MT7ClmvlM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywMqxYwHfqY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l-fJmJrq_0

 

November 18: Tricksters, and Swindlers (Ponzi, Abagnale)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIYtKR24LQs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UmcxQto7UU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w4waqVKanxA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgDQG-ZKRFg

 

November 25: Truth and Falsehood in Social Media

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7VtVy0WJ8k

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EFHbruKEmw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n94qNB9V5ZA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jN8alp5-C7U

 

December 2: TCU Today

Presentation of campus surveys

 

December 9, Final Evaluative Exercise:

“What We Learned” videos

 

Central Course Blog site: https://trueorfalsefall2025.blogspot.com/

 

Technology Policies:

Laptops and iPads are welcome in class, but I ask you not to use cell phones for anything during class time.

 

Writing and the Use of AI-Generated Writing:

Writing is an extremely important requirement in our course.  I consider writing to be an act of discovery and a significant learning tool.  You learn about your subjects, your thoughts, and ultimately yourself by writing.

 

Use of Chat GPT and other AI platforms are neither forbidden nor required.  If you use it, I require that you cite its use as a source the same way you cite other sources used in your research and writing.  Unacknowledged use of AI-generated text may be academic misconduct and/or a violation of professional ethics.

 

Keeping a personal blog tracking your learning experiences is your most important assignment in this course, and I expect you describe your personal thoughts, observations, and reactions to our course content and discussion.  Chat GPT cannot do this for you.  Your course blog is not academic discourse that you need to stress over.  Your blog entries should more resemble a personal letter rather than a formal essay. I challenge you to develop your critical perspectives and to be ambitious about your writing, but my primary challenge is for you to honestly reflect on your learning experiences.